INTRODUCTION:

Odisha, a state in eastern India, is known for its rich tribal heritage and diverse ethnic communities. Amongst these communities, the tribes of Kandhamal district hold a significant place. Nestled within the attractive landscapes of Odisha, Kandhamal district is home to many tribal groups, each with its distinct culture, traditions, and way of life. These tribes have been integral to the region’s social fabric, contributing to its cultural diversity and heritage. However, they also face challenges threatening their traditional lifestyle and socio-economic well-being.

The Kandhamal district of Odisha is home to 29 tribes out of the 62 notified scheduled tribes in Odisha. The major tribes in the district are Kandha, Saura, Ganda, Kandha-Gouda, and Kutia Kandha¹. The Kandha tribe is the predominant tribe and identifies with their dialect as Kuilakuor Kuinga. The Kandha tribe is known for its unique culture and traditions. They have their own language, which is called Kui². The tribe is known for its traditional dance forms, such as Dhemsa and Dhangri. The literacy rate among the tribal population in Kandhamal district is low. The district has taken several initiatives to improve the education of tribal children. The government has established residential schools for tribal children in the district³.

The Kandhamal district is inhabited by several tribal communities, including the Kondh, Soura, Bonda, Dongria Kondh, and Kutia Kondh, to name a few. These tribes have inhabited the region for centuries, adapting and harmonising with the natural environment and establishing a deep connection with their ancestral lands. The tribal communities of Kandhamal have a rich cultural tapestry woven with colourful festivals, unique art forms, traditional practices, and folklore passed down through generations.

One of the distinctive features of these tribes is their sustainable agricultural practices. Agriculture forms the backbone of their livelihood, with shifting cultivation and terrace farming being the prevalent methods. The tribes exhibit a remarkable understanding of the local ecosystems, practising organic farming techniques and preserving indigenous seeds. Their deep-rooted knowledge of the land and its resources is reflected in their harmonious coexistence with nature⁴. The Kandha tribe is known for its unique customs, traditions, festivals, dress, and ornaments within their communities ⁵. They are generally simple in nature, innocent, truthful, and credulous⁶. The Kutia Kandha, a subgroup of Odisha’s largest tribal community, the Khonds, are known for their unassuming, earnest, and reserved nature⁷. Typically shy, they share their inner feelings only with trusted confidants. They are highly reliable and honour their commitments⁸. The Khonds are renowned for their rich cultural heritage, martial traditions, and indigenous values emphasising harmony with nature⁹. Kandhamal district, named after the tribe, has a majority Khond population of fifty-five percent. Additionally, the tribes of Kandhamal district are known for their traditional craftsmanship and handicrafts. Intricate bamboo and cane work, vibrant textile weaving, pottery, and metalwork showcase their artistic prowess¹. These conventional crafts not only serve as a means of livelihood but also represent the cultural heritage and identity of the tribal communities.

However, despite their rich cultural heritage, the tribes of Kandhamal district face numerous challenges that threaten their way of life. Rapid modernisation, encroachment on ancestral lands, and inadequate access to education and healthcare facilities significantly hinder their socio-economic development. Additionally, climate change, deforestation, and natural disasters further exacerbate their vulnerabilities.

Efforts are being made by the government, non-governmental organisations, and civil society to address these challenges and safeguard the rights and well-being of the tribal communities in Kandhamal¹⁰. Various initiatives focus on promoting sustainable livelihoods, preserving traditional knowledge and cultural practices, and ensuring access to education, healthcare, and basic amenities⁶. These interventions aim to empower the tribal communities, foster economic self-reliance, and preserve their cultural heritage.

Furthermore, there is a growing recognition of the importance of inclusive development and the role of tribal communities as custodians of natural resources. Efforts are being made to involve the tribes in decision-making processes, particularly concerning land and resource management. Community-based conservation projects, such as the conservation of sacred groves and the protection of biodiversity hotspots, have gained traction, acknowledging the traditional wisdom of the tribes and their role in environmental stewardship^11,12.

The tribes of Kandhamal district in Odisha possess a unique cultural heritage that has withstood the test of time. Their sustainable agricultural practices, traditional craftsmanship, and strong cultural identity contribute to the diverse tapestry of India’s tribal communities¹³. While they face challenges in modernisation, encroachment, and limited access to essential services, concerted efforts are being made to preserve their cultural heritage, promote sustainable livelihood, and empower the tribes of Kandhamal. By recognising their invaluable contribution to the region’s heritage and promoting inclusive development, we can ensure the preservation of their rich cultural legacy for future generations³.

Sustainable livelihoods are ways of living that are environmentally sustainable and culturally appropriate. They include ways of living sustainably, such as subsistence farming or fishing, as well as opportunities and incentives for people to generate income through environmentally sustainable management of natural resources. For instance, Eliminating the use of plastic which contains hazardous chemicals and takes billions of years to decompose, making an energy efficient home and living a traditional way of life, encouraging green transportation and ensuring Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to enhance sustainable livelihoods by ensuring that “no one is left behind” and a sustainable world is achieved.

The study will contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the alternative employment opportunities available to tribal communities in Kandhamal district. The insights gained from this study will inform policymakers and community leaders in designing and implementing sustainable livelihood measures developed to meet the specific needs and aspirations of the tribal communities. Eventually, the research aims to reduce poverty, enhance socio-economic well-being, and promote sustainable development among tribal communities in Kandhamal district.

OBJECTIVES:

This study aims to:

1. Assess existing livelihood patterns and socio-economic challenges among the tribal communities in Kandhamal.

2. Identify alternative employment and sustainable livelihood opportunities suitable for the local ecological and cultural context.

3. Examine how traditional occupations intersect with newer sustainable livelihood interventions.

4. Explore gender-specific livelihood issues, particularly for tribal women.

METHODOLOGY:

Survey Design: The research employed a mixed-methods approach to gather comprehensive data and insights regarding the livelihood patterns and challenges faced by tribal communities in the Kandhamal District of Odisha. The study will combine qualitative and quantitative research methods to ensure a holistic understanding of the research objectives. The sample size 392 was determined using Cochran’s¹⁴ formula for an unknown population at a 95% confidence level and 5% margin of error, yielding a minimum required size of 384; a slightly larger sample was taken to improve reliability.

Data: By conducting semi-structured interviews with key informants, including tribal community members, local leaders, government officials, and development practitioners. These interviews will provide rich qualitative data on the existing livelihood patterns, challenges, and limitations faced by the tribal communities. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with representative groups of tribal community members were also organised to gather collective insights on livelihood patterns, challenges, aspirations, and community perspectives. Designing and administering structured surveys to collect quantitative data on the demographic profiles, livelihood sources, income levels, and key challenges faced by the tribal communities. We also collected relevant secondary data from government reports, academic literature, and other reliable sources to supplement and contextualise the primary data.

Tools: Thematic analysis has been done on the qualitative data obtained from interviews, FGDs, and field notes. The data has been coded, categorised, and analysed to identify common themes and patterns related to livelihood patterns, challenges, and limitations. Descriptive statistics and data analysis techniques have also been employed to analyse the quantitative survey data. This analysis provided insights into the demographic characteristics, livelihood sources, income levels, and challenges faced by the tribal communities.

Traditional Occupations and Challenges:

Based on the information from Kandhamal district, the predominant tribal community living in the villages surrounding Tumudibandha Block in Kandhamal district in Odisha is Kutia Kondhis. They earn their livelihood through rainfed agriculture and shifting cultivation along hill slopes (locally known as poduchasa). The predominant tribe, ‘Kandha’ or ‘Khonds’ identify themselves with their dialect as Kuilaku or Kuinga. Agriculture, horticultural cultivation and the collection of forest products are major sources of livelihood in the district. Besides this, several challenges faced by the tribes include water scarcity, forest rights violation, religious violence,¹⁵ displacement is major among some other basic socio-economic challenges¹⁶. Tribal villages in the region face several challenges that adversely affect their well-being and way of life. Water scarcity is a prominent issue, as many communities lack access to safe drinking water, leading to health problems and difficulties in maintaining hygiene and livelihoods^17,18. Forest rights violation is another concern, with the forest department destroying community forests that hold great significance for the tribes, replacing them with commercial plantations without their consent. This action deprives them of food, income, and fuel, and erodes their cultural identity. Religious violence between Hindu and Christian groups has been prevalent in Kandhamal, resulting in loss of life, property, and social harmony, which instils fear, insecurity, and mistrust among tribal communities¹⁹. Moreover, many tribes have been displaced or negatively impacted by the construction of dams, irrigation projects, and mining activities on their lands. This displacement disrupts their social, economic, and ecological systems, exposing them to exploitation and marginalisation. These issues collectively paint a challenging picture for tribal communities in the region²⁰.

Sustainable Livelihood Options for the tribes:

Sustainable livelihoods are the capabilities, assets, and activities that enable people to make a living without compromising their well-being or future generations. Sustainable livelihoods are influenced by various factors, such as natural resources, policies, institutions, shocks, and trends²¹. A sustainable livelihoods approach is a way of thinking about the objectives, scope, and priorities for development activities that are people-centred, responsive, participatory, multilevel, and dynamic²².

Alternative income sources are the different ways of earning money or generating value that are not dependent on a single occupation or activity. Alternative income sources can help people diversify their livelihoods, reduce their vulnerability to risks and shocks, and enhance their resilience and adaptability²³. Some examples of alternative income sources in rural areas are agricultural labour, money lending, beekeeping, dairy and poultry business, silk or wool production, teaching, handicrafts, woodcutting, etc.

Sustainable livelihood approaches can be adapted for tribal communities to promote their economic well-being while preserving their cultural heritage and environment. Firstly, sustainable livelihood approaches should recognise and respect the traditional knowledge, skills, and practices of tribal communities. These communities possess deep knowledge about their ecosystems, natural resources, and sustainable farming techniques. Integrating conventional practices into livelihood strategies can enhance resilience and promote sustainable resource management²⁴. Similarly, tribal communities should be actively involved in decision-making processes related to their livelihoods. Participatory approaches that include their perspectives, priorities, and aspirations can empower them and build a sense of ownership and responsibility. This involvement ensures that interventions are culturally appropriate and aligned with their needs and aspirations.

As such, sustainable livelihood approaches should emphasise the sustainable management of natural resources, which are essential for their livelihood. This includes promoting agroforestry practices, sustainable agriculture techniques, watershed management, and biodiversity conservation. Integrating traditional ecological knowledge with modern sustainable practices can enhance resource productivity and resilience. Further, capacity building and skill development by providing training and skill development opportunities to tribal communities is crucial for diversifying their livelihood options. This can include training in entrepreneurship, value addition to their products, market linkages, sustainable farming techniques, and vocational skills that are in demand in the local or regional job market²⁵.

Facilitating access to finance and markets is essential for tribal communities to enhance their livelihoods. This can be achieved through initiatives such as microfinance programs, community-based enterprises, cooperative societies, and market linkages. Building networks and partnerships with government agencies, NGOs, and private sector entities can help create market opportunities for their products and services. Again, tribal communities are often vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and natural disasters. Sustainable livelihood approaches should integrate climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction measures. This can include promoting climate-smart agricultural practices, introducing alternative livelihood options that are less climate-sensitive, and enhancing community resilience through early warning systems and disaster preparedness training. More importantly, adequate policy support and a favourable institutional framework are essential for successfully implementing sustainable livelihood approaches. Governments should develop policies that recognise and protect the rights of tribal communities, provide incentives for sustainable practices, and ensure equitable access to resources. Strengthening institutions at the local level can help in the practical implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of livelihood programs. By adapting sustainable livelihood approaches to the specific context and needs of tribal communities, it is possible to create pathways for their economic empowerment, environmental sustainability, and cultural preservation. This requires a holistic approach considering their unique social, cultural, and ecological circumstances while providing them opportunities to adapt and embrace new livelihood strategies in a changing world.

Gendered Dimensions of Tribal Livelihoods:

Gender is critical in shaping livelihood opportunities and constraints among tribal communities ²⁶. Studies across tribal regions in Odisha and Uttarakhand reveal that although women are heavily involved in key productive activities—such as livestock management, forest produce collection, and crop-related tasks—their access to productive assets remains extremely limited. For instance, in one study across two tribal clusters in Odisha, women performed 85% of livestock-related tasks and 60% of agricultural work. Yet, only 6% of household assets were in their names²⁷. This deep gender gap in asset ownership reduces their bargaining power and limits access to institutional support and finance.

Moreover, tribal women are disproportionately affected by the loss of access to common lands and forests due to state and private encroachments, which undermines their traditional roles in food gathering, fuelwood collection, and forest-based livelihoods²⁶. Customary laws and socio-political marginalisation further worsen their vulnerability. However, as livelihoods evolve under the pressures of modernisation and development, tribal women are increasingly participating in community-based enterprises and home-based activities such as handicrafts and food processing²⁸. These informal but productive roles supplement household income and reshape gender relations within tribal societies. The empowerment of tribal women through leadership training, skill upgradation, and improved access to nutrition and livelihood services has shown tangible benefits in enhancing household well-being and resilience²⁷.

Socio-economic Profile of Tribal Communities in Kandhamal District:

Kandhamal district of Odisha has a total population of 7,33,110 as per the Census 2011. Out of which 3,59,945 are males, while 3,73,165 are females. In 2011, a total of 1,72,022 families were residing in Kandhamal district. Of the total population, 9.9% live in Urban areas while 90.1% live in Rural areas. The average literacy rate in urban areas is 86.8% while that in rural areas is 61.5%. Also, the Sex Ratio of Urban areas in the district is 984, while that of Rural areas is 1,043.

If we look at the tribal population, it can be seen that there are 45 different tribes, along with more than 50 sub tribes, residing in the district. The rural tribal population is 96.89% compared to the urban population, which is merely 3.11% as per the census data of 2011. Since most tribals reside in rural areas, we have conducted our survey on randomly selected rural tribals. Table 1 depicts the composition of the different tribes in rural and urban areas of Kandhamal district. Most of the tribals living in the rural area include Khond or Kandha, Gond or Gondo, Kandha Gauda, and Saora, Savar or Shabar tribes.

Table 1: Tribal Profile of Kandhamal District of Odisha (data as per 2011 Census)

Tribe Name of Kandhamal District	Population in Rural Areas			Population in Urban Areas
Tribe Name of Kandhamal District	Male	Female	Total	Male	Female	Total
Bagata, Bhakta	1	1	2	0	0	0
Banjara, Banjari	1	0	1	0	0	0
Bathudi, Bathuri	1	0	1	5	4	9
Bhottada, Dhotada, Bhotra, Bhatra, Bhattara, Bhotora, Bhatara	0	1	1	2	2	4
Bhuiya, Bhuyan	1	0	1	5	5	10
Bhumia	0	0	0	1	0	1
Bhumij	4	0	4	0	0	0
Bhunjia	1	1	2	1	0	1
Binjhal, Binjhwar	12	8	20	0	2	2
Dharua, Dhuruba, Dhurva	3	2	5	0	0	0
Gandia	1	1	2	1	0	1
Ghara	1	0	1	0	0	0
Gond or Gondo	5,355	5,809	11,164	225	268	493
Ho	1	2	3	0	0	0
Holva	24	16	40	11	5	16
Jatapu	0	1	1	0	0	0
Kandha Gauda	2,157	2,217	4,374	71	62	133
Kawar, Kanwar	2	7	9	0	0	0
Kharia	2	1	3	1	0	1
Khond or Kandha	1,72,552	1,83,023	3,55,575	5,251	5,958	11,209
Kisan, Nagesar, Nagesia	3	1	4	6	8	14
Kol	0	0	0	2	4	6
Kolah Loharas, Kol Loharas	0	1	1	0	0	0
Kolha	1	0	1	3	3	6
Koli, Malhar	28	19	47	16	12	28
Kondadora	11	9	20	5	6	11
Kora, Khaira, Khayara	72	83	155	0	0	0
Kotia	1	1	2	0	0	0
Koya	5	8	13	0	0	0
Kulis	18	22	40	1	1	2
Madia	2	5	7	0	0	0
Mahali	1	0	1	0	0	0
Matya, Matia	28	21	49	7	6	13
Mirdhas, Kuda, Koda	0	1	1	0	0	0
Munda	174	177	351	3	2	5
Mundari	0	1	1	0	0	0
Omanatya, Omanatyo, Amanatya	32	34	66	3	5	8
Oraon, Dhangar, Uran	13	8	21	6	9	15
Pentia	1	0	1	0	0	0
Santal	18	15	33	22	15	37
Saora, Savar, Saura, Sahara	1,866	1,910	3,776	26	5	31
Shabar, Lodha	337	332	669	52	33	85
Sounti	0	1	1	0	0	0
Tharua, Tharua Bindhani	171	178	349	8	6	14
Generic Tribes etc.	1,841	1,943	3,784	30	33	63
Total	1,84,742	1,95,860	3,80,602	5,764	6,454	12,218

Source: https://censusindia.gov.in¹³

Table 2 provides the demographic profile of the tribal respondents interviewed for the study. It can be seen that the majority of the tribes contacted for the survey are male, amounting to 63% of the total sample of 392. 47/7% of the respondents are aged between 31 to 40 years, and 26% are aged between 20 to 30 years, followed by 22.7% in the age group of 41 to 50 years. The sample shows a mean age of 34.04 years and SD of 5.79. Around 57% respondents are married, and the literacy level is only 32.7% among the tribes living in rural areas of Kandhamal district. The majority (73.7%) of respondents live in joint families where the family size ranges between 6 -10 and above. The average family size is approximately eight members; the mode is 7.0 and the SD is 2.63. It can be inferred that there are still higher levels of illiteracy among the tribal population in the rural areas, and the majority of the population is young or middle-aged.

Table 2: Demographic Characteristics (N=392)

Variables	Category	F	%	Mean	Mode	SD	Min	Max
Gender	Female	145	37	0.63	1	0.48	0	1
	Male	247	63
Age	20-30	102	26	34.04	37	5.79	22	53
	31-40	187	47.7
	41-50	89	22.7
	Above 50	14	3.6
Marital Status	Single	169	43.1	0.57	1	0.50	0	1
	Married	223	56.9
Literacy Level	Illiterate	264	67.3	0.33	0	0.47	0	1
	Literate	128	32.7
Family Type	Nuclear	103	26.3	0.74	1	0.44	0	1
	Joint	289	73.7
Family Size	Less than 5	109	27.81	7.84	7	2.63	4	12
	6-10	204	52.04
	More Than 10	79	20.15

Table 3 presents the education, economic, and health status of the sample respondents. As far as earning members in the families of the tribes is concerned, it shows an average of 2.29 members (approximately two) in each family. This statistic ranges between one to four members in the whole sample. The selected tribes have an average of roughly three children in the family, ranging from 0 to 6 children in the total sample. 51.8% respondents have their own cultivation land, whereas 48.2% don’t have any cultivation land; therefore, they mostly rely on the forest and other activities for their livelihood. Besides, cultivation is their major source of income. Yet, many are moving towards the urban areas for better sources of income. While over half of the tribal households have access to cultivation land, the average income per head remains below ₹70, highlighting the need for livelihood diversification. Similarly, 51.3% respondents have their own pukka house property. The daily family income ranges between 150 to 1200 rupees, with a mean of 515.31 Rupees and a SD of 255.67 Rupees. However, the figure may seem reasonable, but the average per head income is just 69.13 rupees with a SD of 34.02 rupees. The per head income ranges from as low as 38 to 290 rupees.

As per the data relating to education, the demographic profile shows that most respondents are illiterate. Table 3 shows the reasons for illiteracy to some extent. There are still 23.2% respondents who said that their village has no primary school, and they have to go to the nearby town for primary schooling. On the contrary, 79.6% respondents said their village doesn’t have higher secondary schools. The average distance to a higher secondary school is around three kilometres.

Table 3: Education, Economic, and Healthcare Status

Variables		Frequency (%)	Mean	Mode	SD	Min	Max
Earning Members in Family			2.29	2	1.04	1	4
Number of Children in Family			2.70	3	1.33	0	6
Children in School			2.22	2	1.35	0	6
Pakka House	No	191 (48.7)	0.51	1	0.50	0	1
Pakka House	Yes	201 (51.3)
Cultivation Land	No	189 (48.2)	0.52	1	0.50	0	1
Cultivation Land	Yes	203 (51.8)
Daily Family Income			515.31	300	255.67	150	1200
Income Per Head			69.13	60	34.02	38	290
Primary School in the Village	No	91 (23.2)	0.77	1	0.42	0	1
Primary School in the Village	Yes	301 (76.8)
Higher Secondary School in the Village	No	312 (79.6)	0.20	0	0.40	0	1
Higher Secondary School in the Village	Yes	80 (20.4)
Distance to School (in Km)	< 3	130 (33.2)	2.94	3	1.82	1	8
	3-5	143 (36.5)
	>5	119 (30.4)
Primary Health Center	No	258 (65.8)	0.34	0	0.47	0	1
Primary Health Center	Yes	134 (34.2)
Distance to Govt Hospital (in Km)	<=5	35 (8.9)	13.03	4	8.96	3	32
	6-15	68 (17.3)
	16-30	140 (35.7)
	>30	149 (38.0)
Communication Facility to the nearby hospital	No	299 (76.3)	0.24	0	0.43	0	1
Communication Facility to the nearby hospital	Yes	93 (23.7)

Health and medical-related information reveal that only 34.2% respondents said that they have primary health centres nearby; however, for better health facilities, they need to move to the other nearby district headquarters like Sambalpur, Berhampur, Cuttack, and Bhubaneswar. Given that only 34.2% of respondents have access to nearby health centres, training in community health or alternative medicine could serve both livelihood and health needs. As per the government data, only 56 primary or community health centres arevailable in the district²⁹. Distance to the nearby community or primary hospital is 3.03 Km and mode of 4.0 Km with a SD of 0.96. Further, it is also observed that the communication to the health centres is not good in 76.3% of the cases. It can be inferred that the health facility is not in a good position for the tribals living in rural villages.

Existing Livelihood Options:

The Kandha tribes of Odisha are an indigenous Adivasi tribal community in India. They are also known as Khonds or Kondhs. They are the largest tribal group in the state of Odisha and are divided into several subgroups based on their geographical location and cultural practices¹². According to Menon³³, the Kandhas are traditionally nomadic pastoralists and marginal agriculturalists who resided across the forests and hill tracts of the Eastern Ghats, predominantly in present-day Odisha. Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Chhattisgarh are also home to small populations of Kandhas. They sustain themselves from the resources of the forests, practising horticulture and shifting cultivation³¹.

Horticulture is cultivating fruits, vegetables, flowers, and other plants for food or ornamental purposes. Shifting cultivation is a form of agriculture in which a plot of land is cleared by cutting and burning the vegetation. Then crops are grown for a few years until the soil fertility declines. Then, the plot is abandoned and a new one is prepared in a different location. This way, the farmers avoid depleting the soil nutrients and also maintain the biodiversity of the forest ecosystem³². The Kandhas grow crops such as millets, pulses, oilseeds, tubers, vegetables, fruits, spices, etc. on their horticultural plots and shifting fields. They also collect forest products such as honey, resin, gums, fibres, medicinal plants, etc., for their own consumption or sale in local markets. They also rear domestic animals such as cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, poultry, etc., for meat, milk, eggs, wool, etc.

Chaudhury³⁴ states that the Kandhas have adapted to the modern way of life in many ways due to development interventions in education, medical facilities, irrigation, and plantation. Their traditional lifestyle, language, food habits, customary traits of economy, political organisation, norms, values, and worldview have been drastically changed. The livelihood of the Kandha tribe has undergone significant changes, impacting their traditional way of life. Some notable changes include the introduction of new crops such as rice, wheat, maise, and sugarcane, which require more water and chemical inputs than traditional crops. This shift in agricultural practices reflects a shift towards modern farming techniques. Cash crops like coffee, tea, and rubber have been expanded, offering increased income opportunities³⁵. However, this expansion also makes the Kandhas more dependent on external markets and vulnerable to price fluctuations, potentially impacting their economic stability.

Adopting modern agricultural technologies, including tractors, pumps, fertilisers, and pesticides, has increased productivity. However, these technologies also come with additional costs and environmental consequences that the Kandhas must contend with. The loss of access to forest land and resources due to deforestation, mining, industrialisation, and urbanisation has adversely affected the Kandhas’ food security and cultural identity. They have experienced a reduction in their ability to rely on traditional forest resources for sustenance³³. The Kandhas have also been exposed to new social institutions like schools, hospitals, banks, cooperatives, and NGOs. While these institutions provide new opportunities, they can also challenge the tribe’s traditional values and practices, potentially causing a cultural shift within the community. Overall, these changes in livelihood have brought both benefits and challenges for the Kandha tribe, affecting their agriculture, environment, food security, cultural identity, and interaction with modern social institutions.

The Kandhas have a rich cultural heritage, valourous martial traditions, and indigenous values which center on harmony with nature. Historically, the Kandhas practised a ritual known as Meriah, involving human sacrifice until the 19^th century. The British colonial authorities banned this practice, and today, a symbolic version is performed using a buffalo or goat instead of a human. They worship Niyam Raja (Niyamraja), the supreme god of the Niyamgiri jungle, believing that he is the source of their essential resources. Niyam Raja is believed to reside on the highest peak of the Niyamgiri hills, which is considered sacred by the Kandhas³². They perform various rituals and festivals to honour him and seek his blessings for their well-being and prosperity. The Niyamraja Parab is their most important festival, observed in February-March, symbolising the end of winter and the beginning of spring. It coincides with Shivaratri and involves prayers, songs, dances, sacrifices, and gifts offered to Niyamraja, considered an incarnation of Lord Shiva. The festival seeks protection from evil forces and guidance for a prosperous harvest. The Chait Parab is a festival of gratitude celebrated in March-April, marking the end of the agricultural season and the start of the new year. The Kandhas thank Niyamraja and other gods for the abundant harvest, sharing food and drinks with their relatives and friends. Various games and sports like wrestling, archery, and running are enjoyed during this festival. The Monsoon Parab, observed in June-July, celebrates rain and fertility. It coincides with the onset of the monsoon season and the sowing of new crops. The Kandhas pray to deities for sufficient rainfall and successful germination. They express joy through dances, songs, and festivities to welcome the rain. These festivals play a vital role in the cultural and religious traditions of the Kandha tribe, emphasising their connection to nature, gratitude for harvests, and seeking divine blessings for a prosperous future.

Alternative Livelihood Options:

The traditional livelihoods of the Kandha tribes—agriculture, forest collection, and handicrafts—form the foundation upon which sustainable livelihood strategies can be built. Sustainable options such as value addition to forest produce, eco-tourism, and skill-based enterprises are not meant to replace traditional livelihoods entirely but to complement them by enhancing income, resilience, and market access. Integrating indigenous knowledge with modern sustainable practices allows for a culturally grounded yet economically viable livelihood transition.

Entrepreneurship and Micro-enterprises:

Entrepreneurship and micro-enterprises are ways of creating and running small businesses that can generate income, employment, and social development for the people involved. Tribes of Odisha are groups of indigenous people with their own culture, language, and traditions. They often face challenges such as poverty, discrimination, and lack of access to resources and markets. However, they also have the potential to use their skills, knowledge, and natural resources to start and grow their own enterprises³⁶. Some of the opportunities for tribal entrepreneurship and micro-enterprises in Odisha are:

· Sabai grass handicraft: Sabai grass is wild grass that grows abundantly in Odisha. It can be used to make various products such as baskets, mats, furniture, and decorative items. The Sabai Producer Group in Guhaldihi Village of Baripada block in Mayurbhanj district is an example of a successful artisanal enterprise that uses Sabai grass as raw material. The group comprises women self-help groups (SHGs) who have received training and support from government agencies and NGOs. They produce and market their products under the “Sabaii” brand, which has improved their livelihoods and empowerment³⁷.

· TRIFED initiatives: TRIFED is a national-level cooperative body under the Ministry of Tribal Affairs that aims to promote tribal handicrafts, handlooms, and Van Dhan essentials. Van Dhan is a scheme that supports value addition and marketing of minor forest produce collected by tribals. TRIFED has established several Van Dhan Vikas Kendras (VDVKs) in Odisha to provide training, infrastructure, technology, and credit to tribal entrepreneurs. TRIFED also operates retail outlets named “Tribes India” where tribal products are sold^38,39.

· MSME schemes and policies: MSME stands for micro, small, and medium enterprises. The Department of MSME of Odisha facilitates, promotes, and enhances the competitiveness of MSMEs in the state. It provides various schemes and policies for MSMEs for industrial development, credit support, technology upgradation, skill development, marketing assistance, etc. Tribal entrepreneurs can avail themselves of these benefits by registering their enterprises under the MSME Development Act 2006^38,40.

· Other sectors: Apart from handicrafts and forest produce, there are different sectors where tribal entrepreneurs can explore opportunities, such as agriculture, animal husbandry, bamboo products, tourism, etc. These sectors can provide scope for innovation, diversification, and value addition for tribal products and services⁴¹.

Eco-tourism and Cultural Tourism Initiatives:

Eco-tourism and cultural tourism are forms of tourism that aim to conserve the natural environment and promote the cultural heritage of a destination. Desia is a responsible tourism initiative in Odisha that aims to promote eco-tourism and cultural tourism in the Koraput Valley, a region known for its abundance of tribes and their unique traditions, languages, and lifestyles. Desia has established a lodging facility that allows travellers to connect with the indigenous people, their forests, and villages. The initiative offers various activities and packages to visitors, including village visits, hiking trails, excursions to key attractions, participation in tribal celebrations, folk performances, local food experiences, voluntourism opportunities, organic farming experiences, sports activities, and opportunities to explore and appreciate local handicrafts. Desia’s focus is on fostering a responsible and sustainable form of tourism that benefits both the tribes and the tourists. By engaging with the indigenous communities, visitors can learn about their cultural heritage, traditional practices, and harmonious relationship with nature. This promotes cultural understanding and appreciation while contributing to conserving the natural environment¹⁶.

Through its activities and packages, Desia offers tourists an immersive and authentic experience and provides economic opportunities for the tribal communities. The initiative supports the tribes by creating avenues to showcase their culture, sell their handicrafts, and participate in the tourism industry. This can help generate income and improve the socio-economic conditions of the tribal communities, empowering them to preserve their cultural identity and way of life. Overall, Desia’s eco-tourism and cultural tourism initiatives in Odisha offer an enriching and responsible travel experience that allows visitors to connect with the tribes, appreciate their cultural diversity, and contribute to their socio-economic development while promoting the conservation of the natural environment⁴².

Forest-based Livelihoods and Sustainable Resource Management:

Forest-based livelihoods are the ways of earning income and meeting basic needs using forest resources such as timber, firewood, fodder, non-timber forest products (NTFPs), etc. Sustainable resource management is the practice of using natural resources in a way that does not degrade or deplete them over time. Tribes of Odisha are indigenous communities that depend on forests for their livelihoods and culture. They have traditional knowledge and skills to manage forest resources sustainably. Some of the forest-based livelihoods and sustainable resource management practices for the tribes of Odisha are:

· NTFP collection and processing: NTFPs are the products derived from forests other than timber, such as fruits, nuts, seeds, leaves, flowers, honey, resin, etc. They have high economic and nutritional value for tribal communities. Tribes of Odisha collect and process various NTFPs such as sal seeds, mahua flowers, tamarind, hill broom grass, sabai grass, etc. They sell them in local markets or to traders and cooperatives. They also use them for their own consumption and medicinal purposes. NTFP collection and processing provide income and employment opportunities for tribal women in particular⁴³.

· Community forest management: Community Forest management (CFM) is a system of managing forest resources by local communities with or without legal recognition from the government. CFM aims to conserve biodiversity, enhance livelihoods, and empower communities. Tribes of Odisha have a long history of CFM practices such as sacred groves, village forests, joint forest management (JFM), etc. They have formed forest protection committees (FPCs) and self-help groups (SHGs) to collectively protect and manage their forest resources. They have also adopted various rules and regulations to regulate access, use, and benefit-sharing of forest resources³⁵.

· Community farming: Community farming is a form of agriculture involving collective land cultivation by a group of people who share the costs, risks, and benefits. Community farming can be a viable alternative for tribals to sustain their livelihoods in the face of increasing pressure on forest lands. Tribes of Odisha have initiated community farming practices such as shifting cultivation (podu), mixed cropping (bari), agroforestry (kandha), etc. They use organic methods and indigenous seeds to improve soil fertility and crop diversity. They also use common land property resources (CLPRs) such as wastelands, fallows, grazing lands, etc., for community farming⁴.

Skill Development and Vocational Training Programs:

Skill development and vocational training programs are the initiatives that aim to enhance the employability and productivity of the workforce by providing them with relevant knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Tribes of Odisha are the indigenous communities that face various challenges such as poverty, illiteracy, social exclusion, and lack of opportunities. Skill development and vocational training programs can help them improve their livelihoods, income, and empowerment. Some of the skill development and vocational training programs for the tribes of Odisha are:

· Skilled in Odisha: Skilled in Odisha is a state government-led program that aims to transform the skill ecosystem in Odisha by improving the quality and quantity of vocational training and education^3,19. The program has focused on upgrading the infrastructure, curriculum, pedagogy, assessment, and certification of the Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) in Odisha. The program has also introduced various innovations such as World Skill Center, Nano Unnayan Kendra, Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL), etc. The program has resulted in higher enrolment, retention, placement, and national recognition for the ITIs in Odisha⁴⁴.

· Tribal Development Cooperative Corporation of Odisha Limited (TDCCOL): TDCCOL is a state government undertaking that promotes the socio-economic development of tribal communities in Odisha. TDCCOL provides skill development and vocational training programs to the tribal youth in various sectors such as agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, handicrafts, handlooms, tourism, etc. TDCCOL also facilitates credit linkage, market linkage, and entrepreneurship development for the tribal trainees^19,30.

· Scheduled Tribes Development Department (STDD): STDD is a state government department that promotes the welfare and empowerment of the scheduled tribes in Odisha. STDD provides skill development and vocational training programs to the tribal youth under various schemes such as Corpus Fund, Special Central Assistance to Tribal Sub Plan (SCA to TSP), Pooled Fund, Assistance to Self-Employment and Skill Development, etc. STDD also collaborates with various agencies such as National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC), National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS), National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT), etc., for providing quality skill training to the tribal youth^19,44.

Handicrafts and Traditional Arts Promotion:

Handicrafts and traditional arts are the products and expressions of the creativity, culture, and identity of the artisans and artists. Tribes of Odisha are the indigenous communities that have a rich and diverse heritage of handicrafts and traditional arts such as terracotta, dhokra, pattachitra, applique, palm leaf engraving, sabai grass craft, bamboo craft, stone carving, tribal painting, etc. Handicrafts and traditional arts promotion can be a source of income for tribes of Odisha by:

· Enhancing their skills and capacities: Tribes of Odisha can benefit from various skill development and vocational training programs to improve their quality, productivity, and innovation in handicrafts and traditional arts^19,44. For example, Skilled in Odisha is a state government-led program that provides training and certification to the artisans in various sectors, including handicrafts^37,41. Similarly, TDCCOL includes skill development and vocational training programs for tribal artisans in various crafts⁴⁵.

· Creating market linkages and opportunities: Tribes of Odisha can access various platforms and channels that facilitate the marketing and promotion of their handicrafts and traditional arts. For example, TDCCOL operates outlets such as Utkalika, Adisha, Boyanika, etc., showcasing and selling tribal handicrafts and handlooms⁴⁵. Similarly, STDD organises various exhibitions, fairs, festivals, etc., providing exposure and opportunities to tribal artisans^37,42.

· Preserving and promoting their culture and identity: Tribes of Odisha can use their handicrafts and traditional arts as a medium to express their culture and identity. Their handicrafts and traditional arts reflect their history, beliefs, values, and aesthetics. By promoting their handicrafts and traditional arts, they can also contribute to the cultural diversity and heritage of the country. For example, Saura art is a tribal painting form that depicts the social and religious life of the Saura tribe of Odisha. By creating and selling their paintings, they can also preserve and promote their culture and identity^37,46.

CONCLUSION:

Alternative employment opportunities and sustainable livelihood options for tribal communities in the Kandhamal district of Odisha are crucial for their socio-economic development and well-being. The challenges these communities face in sustaining their traditional occupations necessitate identifying and implementing viable alternatives that align with their cultural heritage, natural resource base, and aspirations for a better future. By diversifying income sources, tribal communities can reduce their dependence on a single livelihood activity and mitigate risks associated with environmental fluctuations, market uncertainties, and external shocks. Alternative livelihood options such as agroforestry, horticulture, livestock rearing, handicrafts, eco-tourism, non-farm enterprises, organic farming, and forest-based enterprises offer promising avenues for sustainable development. Implementing these livelihood options requires a holistic approach encompassing capacity building, access to finance and markets, infrastructure development, and supportive policies. It is essential to involve tribal communities in decision-making, ensuring their active participation, ownership, and empowerment. Building upon their traditional knowledge, skills, and cultural practices can contribute to preserving their cultural heritage and promoting sustainable practices. Furthermore, effective implementation of alternative livelihood options necessitates collaboration among various stakeholders, including government agencies, non-governmental organisations, civil society, and the private sector. Partnerships that provide training, technical support, and market linkages can enhance the success and sustainability of these initiatives.

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Received on 05.06.2025 Revised on 10.07.2025

Accepted on 05.08.2025 Published on 25.08.2025

Available online from September 08, 2025

Int. J. of Reviews and Res. in Social Sci. 2025; 13(3):129-140.

DOI: 10.52711/2454-2687.2025.00020

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